These findings highlight an important feature of stereotype threat: it is not a characteristic solely of a person or of a context but rather a condition that results from an interaction between the two. To be negatively affected, a person must be exposed to and perceive a potential cue in the environment and be aware of a stereotype about the social group with which he identifies (Aronson et al., 1999). Learners interest is an important consideration for educators because they can accommodate those interests as they design curricula and select learning resources. (Immordino-Yang et al., 2009). Research related to mindsets has focused on patterns in how learners construe goals and make choices about how to direct attention and effort. This body of work seems to suggest that though there were differences, the performance avoidance may also have different outcomes in societies in which individualism is prioritized than in more collectivistic ones. In this chapter, we provide updates and additional elaboration on research in this area. Choice may be particularly effective for individuals with high initial interest in the domain, and it may also generate increased interest (Patall, 2013). Interest is also important in adult learning in part because students and trainees with little interest in a topic may show higher rates of absenteeism and lower levels of performance (Ackerman et al., 2001). The 2010 study included a total of 207 (54% female) high school students from ninth through twelfth grade. The researchers posted the advertisements and assessed their effectiveness both by counting how many clicks each generated and by asking experts in Web graphics to rate them. In one study, for example, researchers asked college students either to design a Web page advertisement for an online journal and then refine it several times or to create several separate ones (Dow et al., 2010). Consider the following letter, written by an elementary school student: Why does a standard chart meant to help the teachers monitor, reward, and correct students behavior seem to undermine this boys enthusiasm for school? These include constructivist orientation, Because of the anticipatory nature of this phase, task analysis depends on a number of key sources of motivation, such as goal orientations, interest, task value, and self-efficacy or outcome expectations. In both cases, it is a change in mindset and goal construction brought about by interest that explains improved learning outcomes (Barron, 2006; Bricker and Bell, 2014; Goldman and Booker, 2009). They shrunk down in their seats; they hemmed and hawed; they told the researcher how poor they were at mathematics (Nasir and McKinney de Royston, 2013, p. 275). Copyright 2023 National Academy of Sciences. There are five motivational orientations in the learning process that affect how a student responds to new learning. For instance, priming learners to adopt a multicultural mindset may support more-divergent thinking about multiple possible goals related to achievement, family, identity, and. For example, a study by Walton and Spencer (2009) illustrates that under conditions that reduce psychological threat, students for whom a stereotype about their social group exists perform better than nonstereotyped students at the same level of past performance (see Figure 6-1). Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features? Taken together, these four components of Participating students responded to only 16 of the full set of 81 MSLQ Values-affirmation exercises in which students write about their personal values (e.g., art, sports, music) have bolstered personal identity, reduced threat, and improved academic performance among students experiencing threat (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009; Martens et al., 2006). Individual or personal interest is viewed as a relatively stable attribute of the individual. The studies included using measures of authentic education outcomes (e.g., standardized test scores, persistence at a task, course choices, or engagement) and showed consistent, small effects across intervention type. WebFor an entity theorist, the meaning of effort is "The harder you try, the dumber you therefore must be." All rights reserved. Praise received after success influences students later achievement motivation but perhaps not in the way intended. We then examine research on interventions and approaches to instructional design that may influence motivation to learn, and we close with our conclusions about the implications of this research. The full range of factors that may be operating and interacting with one another has yet to be fully examined in real-world environments. In the case of women and math, for instance, women perform more poorly on the math test than would be expected given their actual ability (as demonstrated in other contexts) (Steele and Aronson, 1995). The influence of motivational orientations Typically, in language learning theorizing, a goal orientation is viewed as a reason, or a cluster of reasons for learning the language. throughout the life course. Other research points to potential benefits. One such strategy is to support learners in trying out multiple ideas before settling on the final idea. Findings from studies of this sort suggest that educators can foster students interest by selecting resources that promote interest, by providing feedback that supports attention (Renninger and Hidi, 2002), by demonstrating their own interest in a topic, and by generating positive affect in learning contexts (see review by Hidi and Renninger, 2006). being tested. SOURCE: Adapted from Ames and Archer (1988, Tbl. Learners who believe intelligence is malleable, she suggested, are predisposed toward adopting mastery goals, whereas learners who believe intelligence is fixed tend to orient toward displaying competence and adopting performance goals (Burns and Isbell, 2007; Dweck, 1986; Dweck and Master, 2009; Mangels et al., 2006). Learners mastery and performance goals may also influence learning and achievement through indirect effects on cognition. For example, a brief intervention was designed to enhance student motivation by helping learners to overcome the negative impact of stereotype threat on social belongingness and sense of self (Yeager et al., 2016). Some evidence suggests that it is possible to change students self-attributions so that they adopt a growth mindset, which in turn improves their academic performance (Blackwell et al., 2007). At any given time, an individual holds multiple goals related to achievement, belongingness, identity, autonomy, and sense of competence that are deeply personal, cultural, and subjective. For example, some research suggests that intrinsic motivation to persist at a task may decrease if a learner receives extrinsic rewards contingent on performance. Many students experience a decline in motivation from the primary grades through high school (Gallup, Inc., 2014; Jacobs et al., 2002; Lepper et al., 2005). Research on how to improve self-efficacy for learning has shown the benefits of several strategies for strengthening students sense of their competence for learning, including setting appropriate goals and breaking down difficult goals into subgoals (Bandura and Schunk, 1981) and providing students with information about their progress, which allows them to attribute success to their own effort (Schunk and Cox, 1986). A learning orientation benefits from a growth mindset, but highlights the cognitive intention of proactively seeking to learn from any situation. For example, an adolescent who aspires to become a physician but who continually fails her basic science courses may need to protect her sense of competence by either building new strategies for learning science or revising her occupational goals. Self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977), which is incorporated into several models of motivation and learning, posits that the perceptions learners have about their competency or capabilities are critical to accomplishing a task or attaining other goals (Bandura, 1977). It also appears that the learner must tie her identity to the domain of skills. The research described in Box 6-3 illustrates the potential and powerful influence of social identity on learners engagement with a task. The effects of social identity on motivation and performance may be positive, as illustrated in the previous section, but negative stereotypes can lead people to underperform on cognitive tasks (see Steele et al., 2002; Walton and Spencer, 2009). For example, a persons view as to whether intelligence is fixed or malleable is likely to link to his views of the malleability of his own abilities (Hong and Lin-Siegler, 2012). The dimensions of identity are dynamic, malleable, and very sensitive to the situations in which people find themselves (Oyserman, 2009; Steele, 1997). However, as Yeager and Walton (2011) note, the effectiveness of these interventions appears to depend on both context and implementation. Mastery students are also persistenteven in the face of failureand frequently use failure as an opportunity to seek feedback and improve subsequent performance (Dweck and Leggett, 1988). These factors include learners beliefs and values, personal goals, and social and cultural context. Mastering this learning could improve your relationships at work and in your private life. Lazowski and Hulleman (2016) conducted a meta-analysis of research on such interventions to identify their effects on outcomes in education settings. Motivation is a condition that activates and sustains behavior toward a goal. This requires bolstering or repositioning dimensions of social identity. to learn and their decisions to expend effort on learning, whether in the moment or over time. They also consider how physical aspects of the learning environment, such as classroom structures (Ames, 1986) and social interactions (e.g., Gehlbach et al., 2016), affect learning through their impacts on students goals, beliefs, affect, and actions. Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released. Enhancing a persons learning and achievement requires an understanding of what the person is trying to achieve: what goals the individual seeks to accomplish and why. The value of culturally connected racial/ethnic identity is also evident for Mexican and Chinese adolescents (Fuligni et al., 2005). However, it is not always easy to determine what goals an individual is trying to achieve because learners have multiple goals and their goals may shift in response to events and experiences. Over the past decade, a number of studies have suggested that interventions that enhance both short- and long-term motivation and achievement using brief interventions or exercises can be effective (e.g., Yeager and Walton, 2011). Learning environments differ in the learning expectations, rules, and. For example, they argued that East Asian cultures tend to emphasize collectivistic goals, which promote a comparatively interdependent self-construal in which the self is experienced as socially embedded and ones accomplishments are tied to the community. Further, congruence in learners perceptions of their own and their schools mastery orientation is associated with positive academic achievement and school well-being (Kaplan and Maehr, 1999). The effectiveness of brief interventions appears to stem from their impact on the individuals construal of the situation and the motivational processes they set in motion, which in turn support longer-term achievement. They further distinguish between performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals (Senko et al., 2011). The procedures people use to complete tasks and solve problems, as well as the social emotional dispositions people bring to such tasks, are similarly shaped by context and experience (Elliott et al., 2001; Oyserman, 2011). (See also the work of Chan and Lai [2006] on students in Hong Kong; Hulleman et al. A mastery-oriented structure in the classroom is positively correlated with high academic competency and negatively related to disruptive behaviors. For example, in one study of college students, five characteristics of informational texts were associated with both interest and better recall: (1) the information was important, new, and valued; (2) the information was unexpected; (3) the text supported readers in making connections with prior knowledge or experience; (4) the text contained imagery and descriptive language; and (5) the author attempted to relate information to readers background knowledge using, for example, comparisons and analogies (Wade et al., 1999). Although research suggests steps that educators can take that may help to. Neurophysiological evidence supports this understanding of the mechanisms underlying stereotype threat. Learners may not engage in a task or persist with learning long enough to achieve their goals unless they value the learning activities and goals. WebLearning to teach is construed as a process of learning to understand, develop, and use oneself effectively. Students who received praise for ability were more likely to adopt performance goals on a subsequent test, whereas those praised for effort were more likely to adopt mastery goals. Self-Regulated Learning Strategies (English) Scale. Perceived classroom goals are also strongly linked to learners academic efficacy in the transition to middle school. 3 When an individual encounters negative stereotypes about his social identity group in the context of a cognitive task, he may underperform on that task; this outcome is attributed to stereotype threat (Steele, 1997). Five Counseling Theories and Approaches June 1, 2015 Psychotherapy theories provide a framework for therapists and counselors to interpret a clients behavior, thoughts, and feelings and help them navigate a clients journey from diagnosis to post-treatment. For example, researchers who study psychological aspects of motivation take a motivational systems perspective, viewing motivation as a set of psychological mechanisms and processes, such as those related to setting goals, engagement in learning, and use of self-regulatory strategies (Kanfer, 2015; Linnenbrink-Garcia and Patall, 2016; Yeager and Walton, 2011). Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email. In contrast, situational interest refers to a psychological state that arises spontaneously in response to specific features of the task or learning environment (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). Table 6-1 shows how learners mindsets can relate to their learning goals and behaviors. Current researchers regard many of these factors as important but have also come to focus on learners as active participants in learning and to pay greater attention to how learners make sense of and choose to engage with their learning environments. The students who completed the activity made significant academic gains, and the researchers concluded that even brief interventions can help people overcome the bias of prior knowledge by challenging that knowledge and supporting a new perspective. Improvements in the ability to clearly define, distinguish among, and measure motivational constructs could improve the validity and usefulness of intervention research. conscious awareness. A comprehensive review of this literature is beyond the scope of this report, but we highlight a few key points. Teachers can be effective in encouraging students to focus on learning instead of performance, helping them to develop a learning orientation. America (Fryberg et al., 2013). Brief interventions to enhance motivation and achievement appear to share several important characteristics. . In stark contrast, when asked to solve the problems in classroom math terms, players were visibly distressed. A key factor in motivation is an individuals mindset: the set of assumptions, values, and beliefs about oneself and the world that influence how one perceives, interprets, and acts upon ones environment (Dweck, 1999). It has been suggested that the longer-term effects of stereotype threat may be one cause of longstanding achievement gaps (Walton and Spencer, 2009). The research we discuss includes both laboratory and field research from multiple disciplines, such as developmental psychology, social psychology, education, and cognitive psychology. Webwhat was milan known for during the renaissance; five motivational orientations in the learning process Learners goals may reflect the classrooms goal structure or the values teachers communicate about learning through their teaching practices (e.g., how the chairs are set up or whether the teacher uses cooperative learning groups) (see Kaplan and Midgley, 1999; Urdan et al., 1998). Agentically engaged students actively contribute to the learning process reacting to teachers instruction (Reeve, 2012). The perception of choice also may affect learning by fostering situational interest and engagement (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2013). The Self-regulated FIGURE 1.General model for determinants and course of motivated action as product of person and situation (Heckhausen and Heckhausen, 2018).In the present study regarding learning mathematics, we operationalize person as motivational and emotional orientations (i.e., mathematics anxiety, self-concept, and enjoyment) in the situation of WebIn a substantial review, Murphy and Alexander ( 2000) have identified a corpus of 20 academic achievement-related motivational terms that can be grouped into four clusters: (a) goal, including ego-involved goal, task-involved goal, learning goal, mastery goal, performance goal, work-avoidance goal, and social goal; (b) intrinsic versus extrinsic Researchers have also tried to integrate the many concepts that have been introduced to explain this complex aspect of learning in order to formulate a more comprehensive understanding of motivational processes and their effects on learning. Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Research has also linked learners beliefs about learning and achievement, or mindsets, with students pursuit of specific types of learning goals (Maehr and Zusho, 2009). Students can maintain positive academic self-concepts in spite of negative stereotypes when supported in doing so (Anderman and Maehr, 1994; Graham, 1994; Yeager and Walton, 2011). One reason proposed for such findings is that learners initial interest in the task and desire for success are replaced by their desire for the extrinsic reward (Deci and Ryan, 1985). Learners tend to persist in learning when they face a manageable challenge (neither too easy nor too frustrating) and when they see the value and utility of what they are learning. During adolescence, for example, social belongingness goals may take precedence over academic achievement goals: young people may experience greater motivation and improved learning in a group context that fosters relationships that serve and support achievement. In middle school, this culturally connected identity is linked to higher grade-point averages among African American (Altschul et al., 2006; Eccles et al., 2006), Latino (Oyserman, 2009), and Native American students in North. However, other studies have not replicated these findings (e.g., Dee, 2015; Hanselman et al., 2017), so research is needed to determine for whom and under which conditions values-affirmation approaches may be effective. This may be the case, for example, with videogames in which individuals are highly motivated to play well in order to move to the next higher level. WebThe second section (motivation orientations) is made up of seven different motivation orientations, which were 1. integrative orientation (Item 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13), 2. instrumental orientation (Item 2, 4, 7, 9, 12, 14), 3. intrinsic motivation (Item Given the prevalence. Two studies with undergraduate students illustrate this point. Researchers have identified several actions educators can take that may help to manage stereotype threat. A recent study examined interventions designed to boost the sense of belonging among African American college freshmen (Walton and Cohen, 2011). Women who did not receive the encouragement performed worse than their male counterparts (Gresky et al., 2005). These studies suggest the power of situational interest for engaging students in learning, which has implications for the design of project-based or problem-based learning. Situational interest is malleable, can affect student engagement and learning, and is influenced by the tasks and materials educators use or encourage (Hunsu et al., 2017). The researchers compared students who did and did not encounter survey results ostensibly collected from more senior college students, which indicated that most senior students had worried about whether they belonged during their first year of college but had become more confident over time. Researchers are beginning to develop interventions motivated by theories of motivation to improve student motivation and learning. A sense of competence may also foster interest and motivation, particularly when students are given the opportunity to make choices about their learning activities (Patall et al., 2014). A learning orientation is a mental set that enables stakeholders to evaluate and recalibrate inputs and the outcomes, processes and policies required for growth. One is to remove the social identity characteristic (e.g., race or gender) as an evaluating factor, thereby reducing the possibility of confirming a stereotype (Steele, 1997). Research on motivation has been strongly driven by theories that overlap and contain similar concepts. In randomized field experiments, self-affirmation tasks were associated with better grades for middle school students (Cohen et al., 2006, 2009)4 and college students (Miyake et al., 2010). Several studies have replicated this finding (Beilock et al., 2008; Dar-Nimrod and Heine, 2006; Good et al., 2008; Spencer et al., 1999), and the finding is considered to be robust, especially on high-stakes tests such as the SAT (Danaher and Crandall, 2008) and GRE. It is characterized by a learners enduring connection to a domain and willingness to re-engage in learning in that domain over time (Schiefele, 2009). Enabling threatened individuals to affirm their talents in other domains through self-affirmations has in some situations strengthened students sense of self (McQueen and Klein, 2006). Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available. article continues To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter. This phenomenon is known as stereotype threat, an unconscious worry that a stereotype about ones social group could be applied to oneself or that one might do something to confirm the stereotype (Steele, 1997). Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name. . Second, the interventions adopt a student-centric perspective that takes into account the students subjective experience in and out of school. This line of research has also suggested particular characteristics of texts that are associated with learner interest. Identity has both personal and social dimensions that play an important role in shaping an individuals goals and motivation. Within the category of performance-approach goals, researchers have identified both self-presentation goals (wanting others to think you are smart) and normative goals (wanting to outperform others) (Hulleman et al., 2010). Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free? There is also strong evidence for the view that engagement and intrinsic motivation develop and change over timethese are not properties of the individual or the environment alone. In a randomized controlled study, African American and European American college students were asked to write a speech that attributed adversity in learning to a common aspect of the college-adjustment process rather than to personal deficits or their ethnic group (Walton and Cohen, 2011). This integration often means taking on the particular knowledge, goals, and practices valued by that group (Nasir, 2002). These differences were presumed to be fixed and to dictate learners responses to features in the learning environment (method of instruction, incentives, and so on) and their motivation and performance. Problem solving is facilitated when the salient mindset is well matched to the task at hand, suggesting that flexibility in cultural mindset also may promote flexible cognitive functioning and adaptability to circumstances (Vezzali et al., 2016). Such research illustrates one of the keys to expectancy-value theory: the idea that expectancy and value dimensions work together. information. Another important aspect of self-attribution involves beliefs about whether one belongs in a particular learning situation. Researchers distinguish between two main types of goals: mastery goals, in which learners focus on increasing competence or understanding, and performance goals, in which learners are driven by a desire to appear competent or outperform others (see Table 6-1). Some researchers have found positive outcomes when learners have endorsed normative goals (a type of performance goal) (Covington, 2000; Linnenbrink, 2005). For example, in a study of African American children in an urban elementary school, introduction of a reading test as an index of ability hampered performance only among students who reported being aware of racial stereotypes about intelligence (Walton and Spencer, 2009). Experiential learning is a cognitive strategy that allows you to take valuable life lessons from your interactions with other people. Learners may simultaneously pursue multiple goals (Harackiewicz et al., 2002; Hulleman et al., 2008) and, depending on the subject area or skill domain, may adopt different achievement goals (Anderman and Midgley, 1997). The effect of external rewards on intrinsic motivation is a topic of much debate. The report summarized insights on the nature of learning in school-aged children; described principles for the design of effective learning environments; and provided examples of how that could be implemented in the classroom. In research that confronted women with negative gender-based stereotypes about their performance in mathematics but prompted them to think of other aspects of their identity, the women performed on par with men and appeared to be buffered against the deleterious effects of gender-based stereotypes. Moreover, in some circumstances external rewards such as praise or prizes can help to encourage engagement and persistence, and they may not harm intrinsic motivation over the long term, provided that the extrinsic reward does not undermine the individuals sense of autonomy and control over her behavior (see National Research Council, 2012c, pp. People who adopt a mastery rather than a performance goal show a greater tendency toward the following except a preference to work on the task by themselves without asking for help from others This example is a reminder that sometimes the materials and strategies that teachers intend to support learning can have the opposite effect for some students. When learners believe they have control over their learning environment, they are more likely to take on challenges and persist with difficult tasks, compared with those who perceive that they have little control (National Research Council, 2012c).
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